the degree of Master of Music in Commercial Music.

Mentoring Committee:

Date Roy Vogt, M.M.

Major Mentor

Bruce Dudley, D.M.A.

Second Mentor

_______________ ______________________________

Date Kathryn Paradise, M.M.

Assistant Director, School of Music

Examples ............................................................................................................................ iv

Presentation of Material

Appendix: Full Transcriptions ...........................................................................................54

References ..........................................................................................................................79

3.1 “The Boy in the Bubble” measures 9-12 .....................................................................29

3.2 “The Boy in the Bubble” measures 25-28 ...................................................................30

3.3 “The Boy in the Bubble” measures 41-44 ...................................................................30

3.7 “I Know What I Know” measures 8-9 .........................................................................33

3.8 “Gumboots” measures 3-7 ...........................................................................................34

3.9 “Gumboots” measures 13-17 .......................................................................................35

3.10 “Diamonds on the Soles of Her Shoes” measures 1-3 ...............................................36

3.11 “Diamonds on the Soles of Her Shoes” measures 17-18 ...........................................36

3.15 “You Can Call Me Al” measures 17-20 ....................................................................38

3.16 “You Can Call Me Al” measures 122-123 ................................................................39

3.17 “Under African Skies” measures 5-8 .........................................................................39

3.18 “Under African Skies” measures 29-32 .....................................................................40

3.19 “Crazy Love, Vol. II” measures 5-6 ..........................................................................41

3.21 “Crazy Love, Vol. II” measures 79-82 ......................................................................42

the renowned American songwriter’s career, including Simon himself who cites it as “the

most significant achievement in my career” (Berlinger 2012). Even upon its release, the

American pop by fans and critics alike, the core of what makes Graceland such an

interesting album is the way in which Simon incorporates these two styles to create a

unique sound. Part of what makes this combination successful was Simon’s use of South

African session musicians during the recording process, who add authenticity to the

album’s fusion of genres. Among these session musicians was bassist Bakithi Kumalo,

African music present within the bass lines combine with Simon’s American pop

songwriting to create a sound that is unique to Graceland, and which further influenced

Simon’s songwriting later in his career. In order to achieve this, the first chapter of this

paper will focus on the origin of the Graceland project, how it was initially

conceptualized, and how, where, and when the recording sessions occurred. This

African and American musical elements are combined on the record. The second chapter

will focus on the background of Bakithi Kumalo and the styles of South African music he

plays and is influenced by to provide context for the styles of bass playing on the album.

Chapter Three will present analyses of the bass lines and identify elements of traditional

and popular South African music within them. Finally, by focusing on how the role of

these bass lines affect the overall sound of Graceland, and by looking at how the electric

bass is involved in Simon’s post-Graceland instrumental arrangements, the last chapter

will demonstrate how the bass lines of Graceland contributed to a change in how Simon

American Tune as “such a perfect piece of pop mythology that the idea that it all actually

two critically underwhelming albums in a row, and as Cornel Bonca (2015, 100) put: “It

helps to remember that one of the things that freed Simon up to experiment with

something as foreign to him as African music was precisely that his career was in the

dumps.” Although his 1983 release Hearts and Bones was his first album not to be

certified gold, Simon’s troubles dated back even before the release of that album due to

One Trick Pony, as well as tensions with former partner Art Garfunkel, and a short-lived

marriage and divorce with movie star Carrie Fisher (Carlin 2016, 252-53). Simon

himself “was so shaken when the album didn’t do better, especially coming after One

Trick Pony, that it made him question his ability to continue as a successful recording

(Eliot 2010, 186).

days in Montauk watching the house he had planned for himself and his now ex-wife

Carrie Fisher being built and listening to tapes to pass the time (Hilburn 2018, 250-51).

One of the tapes Simon found himself returning to often was a bootleg mixtape called

Accordion Jive Hits Vol. 2, which was lent to him by fellow singer-songwriter Heidi Berg

(Carlin 2016, 277-78). It was on this mixtape that Simon heard the South African

township music that would become the basis for the Graceland’s sound. At this point in

basis for his upcoming project. However, the only information he had was a title and

artist: “Gumboots” by The Boyoyo Boys. He enlisted the help of Warner Brothers

President Lenny Waronker, who had been successful in signing South African group

Juluka, to find a contact in South Africa to help him track down the music he was so

mesmerized by (Carlin 2016, 279). Waronker, along with fellow Warner Brothers record

executive Mo Ostin, was able to get Simon in contact with South African record producer

Hilton Rosenthal, who found the musicians that recorded “Gumboots” (Hilburn 2018,

252).

would become the tracks “Diamonds on the Soles of Her Shoes” and “Homeless” (Carlin

2016, 288). Simon had heard of the group from a documentary entitled Music of

Resistance, and had sent Shabalala a rough idea of what he had in mind for the track

“Homeless” (Berlinger 2012). After completion of the final two tracks to feature South

African musicians, Simon left to record two more tracks he had already planned for the

album, the first being “That Was Your Mother,” a New Orleans zydeco track recorded

with accordionist Rockin’ Dopsie in Crowley, Louisiana (Hilburn 2018, 257). The

closing track of the album, “All Around The World or the Myth of Fingertips,” was

remembers “I was a little nervous because of all that Paul had gone through in recent

months, but as soon as I heard the music I was relieved” and called the music “a smart

dance record” (Hilburn 2018, 251). When it came time to present the album to Warner

Brothers, Halee remembers thinking “A lot of people in the room were probably

wondering why they were wasting their time with another Paul Simon album,” though the

meeting was a success and the label decided to delay the release of the album from its

planned May 1986 release to a September 1986 release instead in order to focus more on

promotion (Hilburn 2018, 271-272). The label reportedly wasn’t sure on how to market

Consequently, the album’s only charting single was “You Can Call Me Al,” reaching #23

on its first release and #11 on its second (Bonca 2015, 111). Despite the underwhelming

chart success of its singles, the album became a hit in its own right, selling over five

million copies in the US alone and over sixteen million worldwide (Hilburn 2018, 282). It

also won the Grammy for album of the year, beating out artists such as Janet Jackson,

Steve Winwood, and Barbra Streisand (Eliot 2010, 195-96).

Though the album accordingly could “take a westerner’s ears a little getting used

to,” on tracks such as “I Know What I Know,” the blend of South African and American

African sessions musicians combined with Simon’s vocals were praised by many,

described by Bonca (2015, 103) as “a tantalizing gumbo of world music that mingled

several traditions into a rhythmically stirring, aurally lustrous, melodically tuneful, and

lyrically arresting album.” Because this new style resonated so well with fans of Simon’s

music and critics alike, his future songwriting projects would find a new direction in

incorporating more elements of world music, such as on his 1990 release The Rhythm of

the Saints, which features both African and Brazilian musicians (Simon 1990). Perhaps

correct, if not simply for the way it redefined his sound.

The main bassist on Graceland is Bakithi Kumalo, whose melodic fretless bass

playing lends itself to many of the album’s iconic moments. Kumalo was born in the

without learning to read or write, but had already demonstrated a talent for music.

Kumalo got his start on bass one night during a set of his uncle’s swing band, when the

regular bassist showed up too drunk to play the gig and the young musician stepped in.

By the age of 10, he had started his career as a professional musician, now a regular

member of the group (Delatiner 2004, LI12).

groups Kumalo played in was a cover band called the VIPs who played mostly American

R&B tunes, though at times would mix in township music, or alter the sound of the R&B

songs to more closely resemble township music. While Kumalo was on tour with the

VIPs, the band found themselves stranded for sixteen months unable to return home,

fretboard. This, however, inadvertently aided Kumalo in finding the unique sound that

would come to make him famous on Graceland, as the replacement bass his mother

bought for him was the fretless Washburn B-20 that provided the recognizable growl in

Kumalo’s sound on the record. Kumalo would continue to make his rounds as a popular

session player, joining American acts who played in South Africa such as the Brothers

Johnson and Harry Belafonte. But it was the township group Tau Ea Matsekha that

caught the ear of Paul Simon, who loved Kumalo’s bass lines so much that he needed to

bring him in to play on Graceland (Bradman 2016, 29).

He cites learning bass voice parts from traditional South African vocal music as a key

factor in the development of his unique voice on the instrument (Jisi 2009, 79).

According to Kumalo, when writing a bass line he likes to “hold down the groove, and

then I find my space to sing” (Jisi 2008, 29). This approach can be heard in several spots

on Graceland where Kumalo alternates from staying in a supporting role to playing a

more melodic line, reminiscent of the types of vocal melodies he would have heard.

Another inspiration was accordion-based township music, which featured accordion bass

29).

playing by the time Simon came along was known as mbaqanga (mɓaˈǃáːŋa), a genre that

gets its name from a Zulu word for a type of corn bread, a play on jazz musicians earning

their “daily bread” through the music’s performance (Coplan 2008, 420). Mbaqanga as a

style of music can be traced back to an earlier style of South African music called

marabi, which gained popularity as early as the 1930s and was influenced by early

American jazz (Graham 1988, 258). The influence of Western music on the music of

Western instruments, South Africa became a “unique melting pot for European and

indigenous musical influences,” which resulted in the sounds of marabi, and later on

kwela and mbaqanga having distinct African qualities, while otherwise resembling

American jazz (Graham 1988, 257). Musicians, such as Kumalo’s uncle’s band, learned

to play the music they heard on records while also incorporating elements of their own

traditional music, and incorporated traditional compositions into performances, to create

a unique blend that would become the basis for the genres that would come later (Bender

1991, 175).

the townships themselves. As a consequence of Apartheid, many black South Africans

were relocated to townships described as “huge workers’ settlements, like camps” in

order to work for the benefit of white South Africans (Bender 1991, 173). Because of the

number of people from different backgrounds relocating to these areas, different musical

traditions began to be blended, which inadvertently helped in the development of marabi

(Bender 1991, 173). As a form of entertainment after a day’s work, musical performances

were held in shebeens, which were private houses where alcohol was illegally sold and

workers would gather to drink and listen to music (Bender 1991, 175). As was the case

(Floyd 1999, 227). As township music evolved, its audience began to favor music that

leaned more towards its South African roots and less towards American swing (Floyd

1999, 227). Kwela music revolved around short and memorable repetitive melodies

played on pennywhistle or saxophone, accompanied mainly by acoustic guitar, though

full rhythm sections were common later in the genre’s lifespan (Floyd 1999, 229). One of

the main distinguishers between kwela and mbaqanga or marabi was the style’s heavy

emphasis on the shuffle feel of its compositions (Floyd 1999, 229). The main factor that

caused the addition of the rhythm section, consisting of drums and bass, was the “fullness

makeshift instruments that would be utilized in live settings, such as tea kettle basses,

were swapped for their Western counterparts on recordings, which ultimately led to

changes in how the music was composed to make it more applicable to Western

instrumental techniques (Bender 1991, 179).

track “Jika Spokes,” which showcases the type of pennywhistle-driven music that had

gained popularity (Mashiyane 1991). Mashiyane was one of the genre’s most popular

artists, and his recordings were credited with causing the “kwela-boom” (Floyd 1999,

development in township music was made with the introduction of the electric guitar,

resulting in the creation of mbaqanga (Floyd 1999, 236). According to guitarist Zami

Duze, a main difference between playing kwela and mbaqanga was that mbaqanga was

faster, requiring guitarists to be more technically proficient (Floyd 1999, 236). Coplan

(2008, 420) writes in The Garland Handbook of African Music that the genre was born

out of the late hours of live music performances, where musicians would improvise by

incorporating more elements of their traditional music into the more Western sounding

style as other changes took place, including the introduction of electric bass as an

essential member of the rhythm section (Coplan 2008, 423). Where kwela had related

more closely with marabi and American music, mbaqanga found more in common with

traditional African instrumental music, now featuring an emphasis on syncopation,

typical AABB form, and fast tempos in a straight 2/4 feel (Coplan 2008, 424).

Mahotella Queens, led by frontman (also known as a “groaner”) Simon “Mahlathini”

Nkabinde (Impey 2008, 139). The typical early mbaqanga sound, which even early on

that they are simpler and acting mainly as a support instrument, though instead of

walking bass lines they typically play a repetitive rhythmic vamp over the simple chord

progression (Mahotella Queens 2019a).

cites as the main influence on his playing (Bradman 2016, 29). Along with playing for

the Mahotella Queens, Makwela was also the bassist for a later mbaqanga group called

Makgona Tsohle band, which played in the saxophone jive style of mbaqanga (Harris,

n.d.). Makwela’s style of playing is uniquely rooted in African music, as it is believed

main pioneer of the instrument’s role in mbaqanga (Bishop 2010, 61). Makwela’s bass

lines are typically heavily syncopated, played high up on the neck of the instrument in its

upper register, and equally as melodic as the lead guitar figures in the songs. Because of

his distinct style of playing, many similarities can be heard in Makwela’s bass lines and

Kumalo’s playing on Graceland. For example, Makwela’s line on the track “Kotopo” is

similar both rhythmically and melodically to Kumalo’s line on “You Can Call Me Al,” in

a song that is written around the same chord progression (Makgona Tsohle Band 2007a).

Part of Kumalo’s bass melody in the verses of “Diamonds on the Soles of Her Shoes” is

of his sound on Graceland is due to the influence of Makwela and other mbaqanga artists

in general, is a large part of his unique sound on Graceland. Because Simon kept the

South African influences as authentic as he did in the studio, the bass lines on Graceland

can be seen as directly drawn from the mbaqanga tradition. Many elements of Makwela’s

distinct style that became associated with mbaqanga, such as sliding, upper register

playing, and syncopated melodic lines can be heard throughout Graceland’s bass lines.

Thus, the bass lines can be analyzed as mbaqanga bass lines within the South African

musical tradition, despite the music itself being influenced by Western sounds. Because

singing lines’ and ‘special kind of fill-ins.’” (Floyd 1999, 236). Because of the roles of

the instruments in a typical mbaqanga ensemble, the bass lines within the style, and by

extension on Graceland, are based much more on creating interesting rhythmic lines than

on supporting the overall pulse of the song like a typical American pop bass line would.

This key feature of the style is one of the main elements that makes the role of the bass

on this album stand out when compared to Simon’s earlier material.

In terms of harmony, most kwela and mbaqanga compositions follow a simple

repetitive progression mainly featuring I, IV, and V chords in a major key (Floyd 1999,

has a notable influence from Western music, the majority of the melodic lines within the

bass lines on Graceland fall within Western major and pentatonic scales.

have elements of South African vocal music, which is not surprising as Kumalo had cited

vocal music as an influence in his early playing style. Like traditional African music and

mbaqanga, South African vocal music relies on interlocking moving parts, many of

which occur in a call-and-response fashion (Nketia 1974, 144). The main difference

between the two types of music, however, is stronger harmonic and melodic focus due to

typically thirds and fourths depending on which scale is being used, as well as fifths,

unisons, and octaves (Nketia 1974, 161-62). This is combined with the contrapuntal

nature of South African vocal music to create a texturally rich sound that can be heard on

the two Graceland tracks that feature Ladysmith Black Mambazo. Because of the

melodic nature of Kumalo’s fretless bass playing, some of the bass lines on Graceland

interact with Simon’s lead vocal in a similar contrapuntal fashion as if they were another

voice, and can be analyzed in relation to South African vocal music. Conlan (2008, 423)

also notes in his chapter “Popular Music in South Africa” that the melodic role of the

the percussive element of the instrument, which is in line with the preference of

percussive passages within traditional African instrumental music, previously mentioned

from Composing African Music. One of the main techniques Kumalo uses to add a

percussive effect to his playing is the use of string muting, resulting in “dead” notes,

often preceding or placed in between fully-sounded notes and with a shorter rhythmic

duration. This, combined with a staccato attack, fills out his lines with more subdivided

rhythms that interact with other instrumental lines. This type of muting is also used

frequently by fretless bass pioneer Jaco Pastorius, whose playing Kumalo has cited as an

increases the attack of the note immensely. When combining slap technique with string

muting, the result is a heavily articulated percussive sound with no sounding pitch, acting

almost as an auxiliary percussion instrument. Another effect that is utilized in many

mbaqanga songs, and is amplified by Kumalo’s use of fretless bass, is the use of sliding

between notes, which shows up in nearly every track on Graceland. Through combining

all of these techniques, Kumalo is able to create a distinct bass sound that is unique

among Simon’s discography, as well as American pop music in general.

The remainder of this chapter will consist of a track-by-track analysis of the

Example 3.1 “The Boy in the Bubble” measures 9-12

This type of bass line, while not commonly found in mbaqanga, comes from the typical

kwela groove, described by Lara Allen as a “lilting shuffle,” derived from the swing feel

of early jazz (Floyd 1999, 229). While typical kwela bass lines are similar to American

walking bass lines, it is not uncommon to feature eighth note upbeats similar to what

Kumalo is playing on this track (Floyd 1999, 233-34). This bass line, along with the

shuffle-feel drums, contrast with the straight eighth feel of the accordion, being played in

a style of accordion-based township music called famo (Carlin 2016, 286). The

song. The chorus, shown in Example 3.2, features a shift from the steady shuffle feel in

the bass to a quarter note triplet pulse for the first half of the measure followed by a

similar shuffle eighth note feel, adding another rhythmic variation to the mix.

Example 3.2 “The Boy in the Bubble” measures 25-28

also a change in tonality, as the song shifts from an A minor key center to G major. This

type of tonality shift is common among some South African vocal music, as is noted in

The Garland Handbook of African Music (Kaemmer 2008, 389).

instrument, pictured in Example 3.3.

Example 3.3 “The Boy in the Bubble” measures 41-44

melody may be seen as an example of the influence of South African vocal music within

the bass melodies, as the line has a somewhat choral quality to it with Kumalo’s sliding

vibrato, and parallel open intervals. Kumalo himself has stated that the ability to slide on

a fretless bass allowed him to achieve vocal-like qualities within his playing, further

acting as an example of the influence of vocal music on his playing (Jisi 2009, 37).

As I mentioned in Chapter One, the second track of the record, “Graceland,” is

one of the albums best examples of a combination of American and South African styles

of music. The track starts with long root notes played by the fretless bass over eight bars

of this track. Pictured in Example 3.4, the bass line starts with a muted sixteenth-note

pickup and moves into a steady eighth-note octave groove.

Example 3.4 “Graceland” measures 9-16

quarter notes on the downbeats with the kick drum, switching back and forth between the

root and fifth of the chord. His choice to play a syncopated eighth-note subdivision is

more in line with African music. In this instance, the kick drum has the largest division of

the measure with quarter notes, acting in a similar role to the “time-line” in traditional

African music that keeps time for the ensemble (Nketia 1974, 132). Where playing

quarters would be somewhat redundant, the eighth note bass line splits the difference

rhythmically between what the guitar and drums are playing, while the muted sixteenth-

note pickup adds an extra percussive element to the line. The bass ends the eight-bar

chorus. While it is likely Simon simply changed the melody to fit his lyrics, call-and-

response playing as well as vocal improvisation can be seen as elements from South

African music. The triplet figure is also an example of a three-against-two rhythm that

would be common in South African instrumental music, and rarely found in American

country.

of the record’s most percussive and rhythmically complex playing among all instruments,

as well as female backing vocals performed by The Gaza Sisters that sit quite

prominently in the mix. There are two main variations of the bass line, the first of which

is pictured in Example 3.6, following the electric bass’s entrance at the beginning of the

track which features more fretless bass sliding. Example 3.7 shows a variation of that line

featuring playing in a lower register, and the use of fifths as opposed to octaves, both

which are common in South African bass playing.

Example 3.6 “I Know What I Know” measures 3-5

higher notes, while playing downbeats on the lower pitches. The result is a bass line that

both keeps a steady pulse and emphasizes a syncopated rhythm, creating two contrasting

rhythmic parts within itself. The line includes sixteenth notes on the upbeat of beat three

that add a hard percussive element over the simple four-on-the-floor kick drum and hi hat

drum pattern. With the two guitars playing complex rhythmic passages that include

several three-over-two lines, the bass’s main role on this track is to provide a steady

rhythm for the track. The heavily syncopated guitar lines, along with the bass line which

both provides a steady pulse and accents upbeats, create the album’s most rhythmically

played in the lower octave, with a syncopated pickup figure shown in Example 3.9. In

both cases, these lines follow the trend of beginning the bass line with a syncopated

pickup.

Example 3.8 “Gumboots” measures 3-7

The slides on this track are another example of the type of sliding played by Kumalo on

other tracks on the record, though not to the same extent that some of his lines take the

effect. Though the bass on this track sits mainly as a supporting instrument in comparison

to others on the record where it has a melodic role, it is still a solid example of how even

the simpler bass lines within South African music work to create an interesting rhythmic

interplay with the other instruments.

In both studio and live settings following the release of Graceland, the influence

of the record’s bass lines continued to affect Simon’s overall sound. When the time came

Eddie Palmieri, and Brazilian percussionist Milton Nascimento about how percussion

instruments migrated from Africa to Central and South America. While some Graceland

musicians, including Kumalo, returned to play on the album, Simon’s approach was

broader and thus included other players from outside of South Africa, mainly through the

use of the Banda Olodum, a Brazilian percussion ensemble whose drumming would

as strongly as Kumalo’s playing on Graceland (Simon 1990).

Following the release of The Rhythm of the Saints, Simon embarked on the “Born

at the Right Time” world tour, which included a show in Central Park that would be

recorded and released as a live album, Paul Simon’s Concert in the Park (Hilburn 2018,

298). The album features six tracks from The Rhythm of the Saints, as well as many of

Graceland. Because Simon had been touring with a band of musicians from Graceland

and The Rhythm of the Saints, the new arrangements of the tracks feature elements of the

sounds from both albums. This is especially true within the bass lines, which are re-

imagined to follow the roles of those albums which contrast to the American pop style

lines of their recorded versions.

An example of this can be heard on the album’s live version of Simon’s 1973 hit

“Kodachrome,” an acoustic guitar-driven pop track from the album There Goes Rhymin’

Simon. While the original opens with finger-picked guitar chords, the Central Park

arrangement for Simon can be heard on other tracks as well including “Me and Julio

Down by the Schoolyard,” which features more a melodic style of playing from Sabal-

Lecco in the song’s introduction, as well as a melodic call-and-response between the

main vocal and the guitar and bass in the album’s chorus. On the album’s second to last

track, Simon performs a re-imagined Graceland-inspired version of the Simon &

Garfunkel hit “Cecilia,” complete with mbaqanga inspired guitars, rhythmic slap bass,

and a pennywhistle solo in the track’s instrumental break (Simon 1991). These changes

in arrangement are undoubtedly due to the influence of other world music genres on

of the electric bass in these arrangements has shifted to a more prominent part because of

its role in the genres from which Simon is taking influence from.

Simon’s next studio album, 2000’s You’re the One, features many elements from

both Graceland and The Rhythm of the Saints, though with a stripped-down

instrumentation closer to Simon’s pre-Graceland work. Much of the bass work on the

album is played by Kumalo and plays a similarly prominent role to the previous two

albums. While many of the bass lines still draw from Kumalo’s mbaqanga background,

Simon’s songwriting on You’re the One has more in common with his earlier albums than

For example, the fretless bass lines on the album’s opening track, “That’s Where I

Belong,” have more in common with the lines on Graceland than on Simon’s earlier

albums, despite being a mainly acoustic pop ballad. Kumalo plays syncopated, flowing

lines that act as a response to Simon’s vocal line in the chorus. The second verse of the

track picks up into a double time rhythmic groove with a fast, repetitive syncopated line

from Kumalo acting as the main driving rhythmic force within the rhythm section for the

remainder of the song.

syncopated and repetitive playing from Kumalo. Kumalo’s bass enters with a

countermelody to the main electric guitar and mallet percussion before shifting to a

repetitive syncopated 12/8 bass melody that drives the song forward. While the song

itself would not sound out of place as a minor key ballad in Simon’s earlier material, the

interplay between the bass, guitar, and percussion add an unmistakable element of

African style to the mix. The album’s title track, “You’re the One,” sees Kumalo playing

a repetitive syncopated ostinato line throughout the entire song along with electric and

acoustic guitar embellishments, similar to the role of the bass line on “You Can Call Me

added percussive line to the track, similar to the ways in which Kumalo used muted

slapped notes on Graceland, which adds to the rhythmic complexity of the arrangement

by acting alongside the auxiliary percussion.

electric bass virtuoso Abraham Laboriel that has the instrument in its most prominent role

out of all of Simon’s post-Graceland material. While the song begins with a banjo feature

in a bright 4/4 tempo, the choruses shift into a driving 6/8 time while the eighth note

pulse remains the same. Laboriel plays a heavily syncopated sixteenth note line that acts

quick 12/8 section for its end. In this section, Laboriel plays an even busier syncopated

arpeggio line that resembles some of the more mbaqanga-inspired tracks on Graceland

and The Rhythm of the Saints as the bass yet again becomes the driving rhythmic force

for the remainder of the track (Simon 2000). Though the songwriting on the album can be

seen as a step away from Simon’s compositional style on Graceland and The Rhythm of

the Saints in which the primary influences were specific types of world music, it serves as

the first example of how Simon incorporated elements of those styles into new

compositions following the album’s release. It is also an example of how Simon

his Graceland influenced material, instead drawing influence from modern pop and rock

music of the time. For the writing and production, Simon worked closely with Brian Eno,

known for producing rock acts such as U2, Talking Heads, and David Bowie. After

meeting Eno at a party, the two discovered that they shared the same vision for expanding

Simon’s sound with electronic elements, credited as “Sonic Landscape” on the album

(Hilburn 2018, 343). While the bass lines take a step back in their role compared to the

albums that preceded it, there are moments where the instrument stands out as it did on

Graceland. Bass lines can be heard from bassist Pino Palladino and Abraham Laboriel

some similarities with them. For example, Palladino’s warm fretless lines can be heard on

tracks such as “Outrageous” and “Beautiful,” while Laboriel’s fast rhythmic playing is

present on tracks such as “Everything About It Is a Love Song” and “I Don’t Believe.”

The album’s final track, “Father and Daughter,” features a prominent syncopated octave

bass line which, during the introduction, repeats itself in reverse as a callback to the bass

solo reversal on “You Can Call Me Al.” The guitar and bass interplay on the track is also

reminiscent of the relationship between the two instruments on many of the tracks from

You’re the One (Simon 2006).

that were influenced by South African music, the tracks themselves have no bass on them

in favor of a more minimal arrangement (Simon 2011). However, when the bass is

present on these albums, there are many cases where characteristics of Kumalo’s playing

on Graceland are present.

element behind the vocal melody. The track features a repetitive, syncopated descending

bass line played by Kumalo on an electric upright bass, which has a similar timbre to his

signature fretless sound. During the chorus, Kumalo plays in unison rhythmically with

during the chorus of Graceland’s title track, acting as a second voice to Simon’s.

Throughout the track, the bass line serves as the main instrumental melody, with the only

other melody coming in the form of a horn line that joins in with Simon’s vocal melody

in the song’s bridge. This can, perhaps, be seen as a more modern example of Kumalo

playing the bass as a lower voice part within the arrangement like he did in many

instances on Graceland in order to compliment Simon’s vocal lines. The album’s tenth

track, “Cool Papa Bell,” is Simon’s most obvious callback to Graceland out of all of his

albums that came after it, Kumalo’s bass line, while perhaps not as flashy as some of his

Simon’s touring band, and his distinct sound became a part of Simon’s live arrangements.

However, as Kumalo stated his 2016 Bass Player Magazine interview, Simon has since

begun to favor more sparse arrangements with less bass, though there are still moments in

live recordings where Kumalo is given the chance to shine (Bradman 2016, 30). While

Simon’s live arrangements following the “Born at the Right Time” tour lost many of their

global music elements, there are still moments that utilize Kumalo’s distinct sound in the

when the bass is featured more prominently. On Simon’s 2012 release “Live in New

York City,” Kumalo’s vocal-like fretless playing can be heard prominently on tracks such

interjects solo melodic lines into the sparse arrangements of the ballads as a response to

Simon’s vocals. The live arrangement of “The Boy in the Bubble” also features a fretless

bass solo from Kumalo in an extended instrumental break. (Simon 2012c). On the 2017

release The Concert in Hyde Park, Kumalo can be heard utilizing fretless sliding in his

line on “Me and Julio Down by the Schoolyard” in an arrangement that includes elements

from the original studio recording as well as the 1992 live version. There is also a second

bass solo added in “You Can Call Me Al” where Kumalo plays a slapped figure similar to

the original solo (Simon 2017). Though Kumalo tends to stick closer to the recorded bass

songwriting and arrangements of Graceland. Similarly, Simon’s live arrangements were

also affected by Graceland’s influence, as well as by musicians such as Kumalo and

Armand Sabal-Lecco who joined Simon’s touring band. It is clear that these shifts which

Simon made to his arrangements were a result of the mbaqanga influences in Graceland

on Simon’s writing. Because of this shift, the electric bass was allowed to become a

newly prominent instrument in Simon’s arrangements due to its importance in the

African styles which influenced Simon. Though this can be seen by looking directly at

tracks off of Simon’s albums following Graceland, it can also be observed by looking at

Simon’s career, it can be noted that the bass lines are distinctly more prominent when

featured on the tracks, and in many instances contain elements of typical mbaqanga lines

such as syncopation, extended range and techniques, repetition, and emphasis on vocal-

like melody. The inclusion of these elements, which were introduced in the bass lines of

Graceland, allows for the connection to be made from the role of the bass on that album

to Simon’s later work, thus showing the influence of Graceland’s bass lines on Simon’s

future instrumental arrangements as a whole.

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