U.S.-China Relations: A Brief Historical Perspective
A Report by the U.S.-China Policy Foundation
RELATIONS BEGIN
Contact between the U.S. and China began in August 1784 when The Empress of China
sailed to Guangzhou, a province in southern China. According to the U.S. Department of
State’s Office of the Historian, in the 18th century, all trade with Western nations was
conducted through Guangzhou. 1784 “marked the new nation’s entrance into the
lucrative China trade in tea, porcelain, and silk.”
Other Americans arrived in China, but not until nearly fifty years later. The first
American missionaries to arrive landed in Guangzhou in February 1830. On the ship
were two protestant ministers, the Reverends Elijah Bridgman and David Abeel, sent by
the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Before arriving, Bridgman
had extensively studied Chinese culture and history. The first medical missionary was Dr.
Peter Parker, who arrived in 1834 in, once again, Guangzhou. He established a small
clinic in the foreign quarter, but with the large number of patients, he soon expanded in
what would become the Guangzhou hospital.
Chinese travelers arrived in the U.S. around the same time Americans arrived in China.
In 1785, three Chinese sailors arrived in Baltimore, Maryland, stranded on shore by a
trading ship. They arrived from Guangzhou, but there is no record of what happened to
them after landing. Chinese culture and history first reached the U.S. in 1839 when a
merchant from Philadelphia, who had spent 12 years trading with China, brought over a
huge collection of art, artifacts, botanical samples, and more. The merchant, Nathan
Dunn set up a museum for his collection in Philadelphia, allowing visitors a glimpse into
life in China.
THE OPIUM WAR AND TREATIES
In order to better understand the relationship between the U.S. and China, we must also
look into China's history and interactions with other nations--even those not directly
involving the United States. China’s “Century of Humiliation,” the period from 1839-
1949 when China lost large portions of land to foreign powers, forms the framework
though which many Chinese view China's place in the international community even
today. The “Century of Humiliation” began with the Opium War in 1839.
Great Britain fell in love with Chinese tea, silks, and other goods, and attempted to
expand trade relations to gain more of these commodities. The Chinese rejected these
efforts until the British offered something the Chinese couldn't refuse--opium. Great
Britain began exporting opium to China and the Chinese soon became addicted. In 1838,
the emperor of China sent Commissioner Lin Zexu to Guangzhou to put a stop to the
1784
Empress of
China
arrives in
Guangzhou
1839-1949
“Century of
Humiliation”
opium trade. Lin demanded that the British hand over their opium supply to be destroyed,
and the British eventually consented. The British then departed Guangzhou for Macao,
but the dispute over these events eventually incited war the following year. The Opium
War between Great Britain and China began.
The Treaty of Nanking--the first of what the Chinese refer to as the unequal treaties--
ended the Opium War in 1842 with the British emerging victorious. The treaty heavily
favored the British and expanded international trade, opening up four new ports.
According to the Office of the Historian, the treaty “provided the basis for the expansion
of trade” and “served as the model for subsequent treaties between China and other
Western nations.”
The Treaty of Wangxia was then signed in 1844 by the U.S. and China, marking the
beginning of official relations between the two countries. In 1843, Secretary of State
Daniel Webster sent Congressman Caleb Cushing to China to negotiate a treaty with the
Qing (the dynasty in power since 1644). Cushing was refused entry into Beijing, and
began to give up hope on negotiations while waiting in Macao. Just as Cushing was about
to leave and return to the U.S., Qi Ying, the Qing negotiator, agreed to all terms proposed
by the U.S. The treaty gave the U.S. most favored nation status with China and granted
Americans various privileges in China.
The U.S. gained more privileges in China after the treaties of Tianjin were signed
between China and several foreign powers. The new treaties signed in 1858 opened up
more ports for foreign trade and settlement and increased trading privileges for foreigners.
The Qing court also allowed permanent diplomatic offices to be established in Beijing.
China Analyst Alison Kaufman places the losses during the “Century of Humiliation”
into three categories: “a loss of territory; a loss of control over its internal and external
environment; and a loss of international standing and dignity.” Today, many Chinese see
these losses as injustices that need to be corrected. They blame these past humiliations
on Western imperialism, which they often associate with the U.S. today, despite its roots
in the British imperialism of the 1800s.
ANTI-CHINESE SENTIMENTS
In 1847, Chinese laborers, known as “coolies,” first arrived in Cuba to work on sugar
plantations. Soon after, “coolies” began arriving in the U.S. After the California Gold
Rush began in 1849, an increasing number of Chinese laborers arrived in the U.S. to
work in mines and on railroads, as well as other positions for unskilled labor. Over
100,000 Chinese came to the United States within the first 20 years after the start of the
gold rush.
With the arrival of Chinese in large numbers, perceptions of a people and culture
previously largely unknown to 19
th
century Americans began to take shape. U.S. citizens,
including government officials, perceived the Chinese as inferior to the majority
Caucasian population. As a result, the government began placing restrictions on Chinese
1839-1842
Opium War
1842
Treaty of
Nanking
1844
Treaty of
Wangxia
1858
Treaties of
Tianjin
1849
California
Gold Rush
attracts
Chinese
immigrants
immigration to the United States. In 1875, Congress passed the Page Act prohibiting the
entrance of coolie laborers and Chinese women brought over for prostitution. In 1882,
Congress took these measures a step further and passed the Chinese Exclusion Act,
suspending all immigration from China to the U.S. for ten years. Meanwhile, the Chinese
population in the U.S. faced considerable prejudice. Chinese people were viewed as
being of a lower class, uneducated, and even dangerous. Chinese encountered harassment
across the country.
In 1888, the U.S. and China signed the Bayard-Zhang Treaty prohibiting Chinese
migration to the U.S. for another 20 years, despite public opinion in China. The Scott Act
further extended exclusionary measures by prohibiting the return of any Chinese resident
who had left the U.S. The Greary Act of 1892, once again, prohibited Chinese
immigration for another decade. This act also required all Chinese immigrants and U.S.
citizens of Chinese descent to carry residence permits at all time, and went further to strip
Chinese in the U.S. of additional legal rights. After 1902, when the Greary Act lost effect,
Congress continued to pass legislation preventing the arrival of more Chinese immigrants
and established guidelines for removal of the existing Chinese population from the U.S.
The Chinese population in America became increasingly concentrated into segregated
groups usually located in urban areas across the country, which later became known as
“China towns.”
THE FIRST SINO-JAPANESE WAR AND THE OPEN DOOR NOTES
From August of 1894 to April of 1895, emerging power Japan clashed with the Qing
Dynasty over dominance in Korea in what later became known as the first Sino-Japanese
War. The war ended in a clear Japanese victory with the Treaty of Shimonoseki -- a
major blow to the Qing Dynasty’s reputation and regional power. Japan gained
additional rights within China, such as the right to build factories. The U.S. also obtained
these rights through the most favored nation principle while simultaneously becoming a
competitor with Japan in Southeast China. The topic of Taiwan came under discussion as
part of the treaty, but Qing officials resisted ceding the island to Japan, instead declaring
it the Republic of Formosa in May of 1895. In response, Japan invaded Taiwan and took
control of the island through military force city by city. This marked the beginning of a
half century of Japanese occupation in Taiwan.
With multiple powers claiming dominance in China, Secretary of State John Hay
introduced the idea of an "Open Door" to China through notes dispatched to European
powers in 1899. The idea behind the Open Door Notes was first introduced by British and
American experts on China, Alfred Hippisley and William Rockhill, with the intent of
protecting both countries' trade interests in China. The notes promoted equal trade
opportunities in China for foreign powers with no country having complete control over
China. Secretary Hay sent the notes to influential powers in China including Great Britain,
Germany, France, Russia, and Japan. Although the notes themselves had very little legal
standing, they marked the beginning of the U.S.'s policy towards East Asia as one of an
open door.
1875
Page Act
1882
Chinese
Exclusion
Act
1888
Bayard-Zhang
Treaty
1892
Greary Act
1894-1895
First Sino-
Japanese War
1899
Open Door
Notes
RISING TENSIONS AND THE FALL OF THE QING DYNASTY
In the late 1890s, anti-foreign sentiment was rising among the Chinese despite the
Americans' hopeful open door attitude. The Boxer Rebellion, named after the martial
artists who started the group, gained momentum in China for its anti-foreigner and anti-
Christian sentiments. A common slogan of the Boxers was, “support the Qing, destroy
the foreigner.” The Boxers targeted all foreigners, including missionaries and embassy
staff, many of whom went into hiding, barricading themselves in their legations. In 1900,
the Boxer Rebellion was crushed by the combined military strength of multiple nations,
including the U.S. The U.S. Marines played a large role in defending the legations and
overpowering the Boxers. In 1901, foreign powers forced the Qing to sign a settlement
called the Boxer Protocol in which the Qing court was required to pay more than $330
million to foreign nations in reparations, significantly weakening the already troubled
Qing Dynasty. The U.S. later used their share of the reparations to fund scholarships for
Chinese students to study in the U.S.
Anti-foreign sentiment continued to rise. Soon anti-foreign sentiment transformed into
anti-American sentiment. From 1906-1906, Shanghai, Beijing, and other major cities in
China began boycotting U.S. businesses and products, reflecting the growing nationalism
in China.
The Qing Dynasty, in an effort to strengthen their weakening legitimacy, enacted a series
of reforms and changes to the constitution. At the same time, in order to fund the
expansion of railroads in China, the government took out a string of loans from foreign
governments. Despite--or perhaps because of--these changes, discontent with the
government surged and rebellions took place all over China. In fall of 1911, the Qing
Dynasty fell.
WWI, THE SECOND SINO-JAPANESE WAR, AND THE CHINESE CIVIL WAR
Following the Wuchang Uprising against the Qing in October of 1911, the Qing Dynasty
fell and the Republic of China (ROC) was officially established. The founding party of
the Republic was the National People's Party, also known as the Kuomintang, or KMT.
While the Republic's leadership changed hands a few times in its early years, the
established leadership still showcased its military strength. Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi)
became leader of the KMT in 1925 and is by far the most well-known leader of the
Nationalist party.
The 1900s were a time of great transition in China. Although previously only a tentative
participant in international affairs, China was thrust into international conflict in World
War I. China successfully maintained its neutrality for the first four years of the war
before declaring war against Japan in August of 1917. China sought to reassert its claim
to the Shantung Peninsula, which was part of the German concession at the time.
However, Japan also claimed governance and seized the peninsula. They issued a
document to the Chinese government which became known as the 21 Demands--
articulating claims to territorial and trade privileges in China. The U.S., under the
1900
Boxer
Rebellion
1905-1906
Anti-American
Boycotts
1911
Fall of the Qing
Dynasty
1911
Establishment
of the Republic
of China (ROC)
1917
China declares
war against
Japan (WWI)
1901
Boxer Protocol
1915
21 Demands
presidency of Woodrow Wilson, objected to this document as it conflicted with the open
door policy, but China accepted the terms of the demands.
The Treaty of Versailles, ending WWI, gave Japan ownership of Shantung Peninsula,
outraging many Chinese citizens. In a surge of Chinese nationalism, student
demonstrations began on May 4th, 1919, protesting Japanese imperialism, Japan's 21
demands, the overtake of Shantung Peninsula, and the Treaty of Versailles. The May
Fourth Movement inspired many China, including Mao Zedong. Soon ideologies of
anarchy and communism gained traction. In 1921, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
was founded by a group of Chinese leftists, based on the principles of Marxism-Leninism,
forming a united front against the Kuomintang. Both the KMT and the CCP claimed to be
the true government of China and, before long, the Chinese Civil War began in August of
1927. The KMT gained control over most of southern China, claiming Nanjing as its
capital. The U.S. recognized the KMT as the legitimate government of China, becoming
the first nation to do so.
Japan continued to expand--invading Manchuria and attacking the Great Wall in 1933.
While Japanese and Chinese forces engaged in skirmishes, the Chinese largely practiced
appeasement. However, tensions continued to rise until full-on war erupted between the
two nations in 1937 in what became known as the second Sino-Japanese War. The
Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party took a hiatus in their ideological and
physical battles and formed a united front against the invading Japanese. The Imperial
Japanese Army (IJA) captured Beijing, the nearby port city Tianjin, and the KMT capital
city of Nanjing (Nanking). When Nanjing fell to Japanese forces, Japanese General
Matsui Iwane launched a campaign to destroy the city entirely in order “to break the
spirit of Chinese resistance.” Japanese troops raped, mutilated, tortured, and killed
civilians. This became known around the world as the “Rape of Nanking” or the
“Nanjing Massacre.”
The atrocities committed in Nanjing drew outrage from Western nations. The U.S., U.K.,
France, and Australia extended financial support to the Republic of China and limited
their trade with Japan. The first American Volunteer Group (AVG) of the Chinese Air
Force, nicknamed the Flying Tigers, assisted in defending China against Japan from
1941-1942. They included pilots from the U.S. Marine Corps, Navy, and Army Air Corps
and were credited with destroying nearly 300 enemy aircraft. Additionally, the U.S.
began an oil embargo on Japan, depriving Japan of much needed natural resources. Under
President Roosevelt's regime, the U.S. extended $25 million credit to the Nationalist
regime for purchasing war supplies. The credit was expanded to $100 million in 1940.
With this aid, relations looked to be improving and China and the U.S. formally signed a
treaty ending 60 years of immigration exclusion. Chinese were now allowed to immigrate
to the U.S., but the quota was still very low. On December 7, 1941, Japan bombed Pearl
Harbor and the U.S. declared war against Japan the following day. With the U.S. and
other Western powers involved, the second Sino-Japanese War merged with WWII.
The Chinese Civil War was not altogether forgotten by the U.S., and in 1944, with the
approval of KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek, the U.S. sent an army observation group to
1919
May Fourth
Movement
1921
Chinese
Communist
Party (CCP)
Founded
1927
Chinese Civil
War Begins
1937
Second Sino-
Japanese War
Begins
1941-1942
“Flying Tigers”
U.S. provides
war aid
1937
Nanjing
Massacre
1941
U.S. enters
WWII
Yan'an to study and learn about the Communists' forces. The group was impressed with
the structure and discipline of the Communist party, and desired to provide aid to their
war efforts. This, of course, was adamantly denied by Chiang Kai-shek. The U.S.
maintained their presence in China when Vice President Henry Wallace visited
Chongqing in 1944. Wallace was the highest ranking U.S. official to visit China up until
that point. After the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945,
Japan surrendered, the allies emerged victorious, and the war was over. Upon Japan's
defeat, they were forced to cede control of Taiwan back to China.
The Civil War resumed in 1946, a year after the end of the war with Japan. Although the
U.S. government under the Truman administration attempted negotiations between the
Nationalists and the Communists in 1945, war erupted once again in early 1946.
President Truman signed off on providing aid to Chiang Kai-shek's regime, but otherwise
the U.S. largely stayed out of the Chinese Civil War. In 1949, the Communist Party under
the leadership of Mao Zedong, won the Civil War and established the People's Republic
of China (PRC) in mainland China. The Nationalists, under the leadership of Chiang Kai-
shek, were forced to retreat to Taiwan. Despite the KMT's loss, the U.S. continued to
recognize the Republic of China as the legitimate government of China. This limited
relations between the U.S. and the new PRC government for many years to come.
THE RED SCARE AND THE KOREAN WAR
After WWII, the Soviet Union and the United States became involved in the Cold War,
consisting of "largely political and economic clashes." With this rivalry causing tension
throughout the U.S., many citizens grew concerned that communists or communist
sympathizers were infiltrating their government and society as spies for the USSR,
posing a threat to the nation's security. Anti-communist hysteria spread across the U.S.,
and the loyalty of government officials, Hollywood film stars, and workers in many other
industries, was put under scrutiny. This became known as the Red Scare (communists
were referred to as “reds” for their allegiance to the Soviet Union). U.S. Senator Joseph
McCarthy of Wisconsin spearheaded the effort, using tactics of fear and intimidation to
expose any potential espionage efforts. Anticommunist hysteria was later known as
“McCarthyism.” Those with any relation to China--including journalists, scholars,
students—were all under suspicion.
Anticommunist hysteria was only heightened by international events. On June 25, 1950,
the North Korean People's Army invaded South Korea. The United Nations and the
United States came to the aid of South Korea. When U.S., UN, and South Korean troops
approached the North Korean border with China, Chinese troops intervened and began
aiding North Korea. The Soviet Union also backed the North Korean forces, fueling the
Americans’ growing fear of communism. The war ended in a stalemate and the parties
involved signed an armistice agreement in 1953. Senator McCarthy was censured by the
Senate in December 1954 after a series of trials earlier that year, though it was not until
the late 1950s that the climate of fear in the U.S. began to ease. Despite the red scare
ending, this fear of communism has left a mark and, to some degree, still influences U.S.
sentiment today.
1946
Civil War
resumes
1949
People’s
Republic of
China (PRC)
established,
Nationalists
retreat to
Taiwan
1950-1953
Korean War
1950s
Red Scare
1945
Taiwan
returned to
China
THE TAIWAN STRAIT CRISES
In 1950, President Truman declared that the U.S. would no longer get involved in
conflicts between the PRC and the ROC. However, after the outbreak of the Korean War,
President Truman felt that the neutralization of the Taiwan Strait, the body of water
separating Taiwan from mainland China, would be in the United States' best interests.
Truman ordered the U.S. Navy Seventh Fleet to protect Taiwan from an attack from the
PRC. In 1953, after the armistice agreement was signed officially ending the Korean War,
President Dwight D. Eisenhower lifted the navy blockade from the Taiwan Strait. Chiang
Kai-shek immediately deployed thousands of troops to China's off-shore islands of
Jinmen (Quemoy) and Mazu (Matsu). The People's Liberation Army (PLA) of mainland
China responded by shelling the islands. The U.S. threatened a nuclear attack on China,
and with the power of the U.S. behind Taiwan, China agreed to negotiate. In January
1955, Congress passed the Formosa Resolution giving President Eisenhower authority to
defend Taiwan and other islands just off the shore of mainland China. In 1958, the PRC
once again shelled the two islands, and the U.S. threatened nuclear force. This was an
effective threat at the time as the PRC did not have nuclear power, but this was soon to
change. The PRC tested its first successful atomic bomb in October 1964 and joined the
nuclear club.
SINO-SOVIET SPLIT
In the late 1950s, relations between the PRC and the USSR began to deteriorate. Where
the two communist powers aligned before, they now began to diverge. The USSR did not
offer military support during the first and second Taiwan Strait Crises, as Mao Zedong
would not agree to Khrushchev's condition that the USSR be allowed to establish a
Soviet naval communications center in China and assume full operation control of their
navy. Mao Zedong and Nikita Khruschev differed in terms of ideology as well. Mao
believed the success of the communist revolution should depend on a country's specific
social characteristics. While focusing on heavy industry may be the goal of the USSR in
establishing communism, Mao decided to turn his attention to strengthening agriculture
in order to mobilize China’s dominant demographic--peasants. Khruschev’s 1956 “Secret
Speech” criticizing the ideology of the late Premier Joseph Stalin went against Mao
Zedong’s views of communism and contributed greatly to the Sino-Soviet split. Prior to
the Sino-Soviet split, there was an impression in the U.S. that communism in the USSR
and communism in China was one in the same. The split allowed the U.S. and China to
move towards rapprochement.
RAPPROCHEMENT
In 1965, Congress passed the Immigration and Naturalization Act allowing more
migrants from Asia. Chinese immigration increased dramatically. In the same year, the
U.S. halted economic aid to Taiwan as Taiwan's economy was growing at a rapid pace on
its own.
1955
Formosa
Resolution
1950-1953
U.S. Navy
Seventh Fleet
protects Taiwan
1950s
Sino-Soviet Split
1965
Immigration and
Naturalization
Act
Relations improved further as a result of what later became known as Ping Pong
Diplomacy. In April 1971, both the U.S. and China sent ping pong teams to compete in
Japan in the World Table Tennis Championship. The Chinese government then invited
the U.S. ping pong team to come to China, and they accepted. The invitation signaled that
China wanted to open friendly relations with the U.S. The same day the U.S. team was
given a reception for their arrival in Beijing, President Nixon eased the trade embargo on
China. In turn, China relaxed its trade embargo on the U.S. less than a week later.
A monumental turning point in the U.S.-China relationship was President Nixon's 1972
visit to China. In July 1971, President Nixon's National Security Advisor Henry
Kissinger secretly visited Beijing to prepare for the president's visit the following year,
meeting with senior officials including Premier Zhou Enlai. Nixon’s visit ended 25 years
of separation between the two nations. The trip served a dual purpose--to improve
relations and open up dialogue between the U.S. and China, and to gain leverage against
the Soviet Union. During the eight-day visit, Nixon met with Mao Zedong and Zhou
Enlai, traveling to Beijing, Hangzhou, and Shanghai. At the end of the trip, the U.S.
government and the PRC issued the Shanghai Communiqué in which both countries
agreed that it would be in everyone's best interest to move towards normalizing
diplomatic relations.
In May 1973, the United States Liaison Office was established in Beijing and a PRC
counterpart office was established in Washington, DC. In 1975, President Gerald Ford
visited the PRC, reaffirming the U.S.'s intent of moving relations towards normalization.
China's leadership experienced its first turnover since the founding of the PRC in 1949.
Premier Zhou Enlai passed away in January 1976 due to illness, and Chairman Mao died
after suffering a heart attack that September. Deng Xiaoping quickly rose to power
following Mao's death, becoming Deputy Premier. While Hua Guafeng replaced Mao as
chairman, Deng held a leading position in the Politburo as head of the Military Affairs
Commission. Meanwhile, President Jimmy Carter came into office in January 1977. With
so many changes in leadership, normalization of relations between China and the U.S.
was making slow progress.
Shortly after taking office in 1977, President Carter reinforced the aims of the Shanghai
Communiqué. In December 1978, the PRC and the U.S. government issued a joint
communiqué establishing full diplomatic relations. President Carter agreed to the terms
of the PRC's proposed "One-China" policy and the U.S. severed official diplomatic
relations with Taiwan. The One-China policy states that there is only one China, despite
claims from two competing governments, the PRC and the ROC. This means that in order
for the U.S. or any other nation to have diplomatic relations with the PRC, they must
break off ties with the ROC. (Later in 1979, however, Congress approved the Taiwan
Relations Act allowing continued relations between the U.S. and Taiwan without directly
violating the One-China policy.) On January 1, 1979, both nations announced the official
establishment of diplomatic relations.
1971
Ping Pong
Diplomacy
1972
President Nixon
Visits China
1978
U.S. and China
establish full
diplomatic
relations
1973
U.S. Liaison
Office
established
1976
Mao dies, Deng
Xiaping comes
into power
1979
Taiwan
Relations Act
In 1980, Deng Xiaoping launched a series of economic and social reforms meant to
improve the lives of Chinese citizens, including opening up China to foreign investment,
decollectivizing agriculture, and allowing citizens to own businesses. International
companies flooded into China to take advantage of new market opportunities. From here,
the two nations had more and more contact: President Ronald Reagan became the third
U.S. president to visit China in 1984 (after Presidents Nixon and Ford); in the 1970s and
1980s, China joined a number of international organizations including the IMF, World
Bank, and the Asian Development Bank. China was finally engaging more with the
international community.
HIATUS IN RELATIONS
On June 4, 1989, the People’s Liberation Army cracked down on the thousands of
students demonstrating in Tiananmen Square, Beijing. The students were protesting for a
number of different causes, including government accountability and transparency,
freedom of speech and the press, and democracy. The PLA open fired, killing what is
estimated to range from hundreds to a few thousand students. This caused an uproar in
the international community. The U.S. responded by imposing economic sanctions on
China and suspending military sales. Although the Tiananmen Square Incident caused a
hiatus in relations, Sino-U.S. relations began to gradually improve after a few years. In
1997, Chinese President Jiang Zemin visited the U.S.--the first visit of a Chinese leader
in over a decade. In turn, President Clinton visited China the following year to discuss
Taiwan. The visits were signs relations were improving once more, but they took another
hit in 1999.
On May 7, 1999, U.S. bombs accidentally struck the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade
during a NATO intervention in Yugoslavia, killing three and injuring twenty. The
bombing was meant to target a warehouse storing ammunition, but the maps given to
NATO were obsolete. Although President Bill Clinton immediately apologized and stated
the bombing was an accident, Chinese media delayed reporting the apology and anti-
American protests erupted across China as Chinese citizens attacked U.S. property--in
particular, the U.S. embassy in Beijing.
TENSIONS IN THE 21ST CENTURY
On April 1, 2001, a U.S. Navy spy plane collided with a Chinese jet off the coast of
China during routine surveillance. The U.S. plane made an emergency landing in Hainan,
China. All 24 American crewmembers survived, but the PRC pilot was killed in the
incident. The U.S. aircraft and crewmembers were detained and interrogated until April
11. It is unclear which nation, if any, was at fault for the incident and the situation
diffused quickly.
Concerns over potential economic imbalances increased as China's economy grew. In
October 2000, President Clinton signed the U.S.-China Act of 2000 granting Beijing
permanent normal trade relations with the U.S. In September 2001, China was finally
1989
Tiananmen
Square Incident
1999
U.S. bombing of
Chinese embassy
in Belgrade
2001
U.S.-China
Aircraft
Collision
2001
China joins
WTO
1980
Reform and
Opening Up
permitted entry into the World Trade Organization after agreeing to follow a number of
trade standards. By 2006, China became the U.S.'s second biggest trading partner after
Canada. In September 2008, China surpassed Japan to become the largest holder of U.S.
debt. As of July 2013, China held $1.3 trillion of U.S. debt. In 2010, China became the
world's second largest economy after the U.S., and is expected to surpass the U.S. by
2027.
Besides economic concerns, the U.S. and China have had several political conflicts. For
example, in 2012 Chen Guangcheng, a Chinese political dissident who was under house
arrest for his outspoken human rights activism, escaped and found asylum at the U.S.
embassy in Beijing. U.S. diplomats negotiated with Chinese officials and Chen came to
the U.S. as a student studying law at New York University, where he currently resides.
The situation was solved by allowing Chen Guangcheng to come to the U.S. as a student
rather than as a political dissident.
In 2011, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announced the U.S. "pivot" from the Middle
East to Asia. This referred to investing U.S. attention on military, political, and economic
affairs in the Asia Pacific region. China has risen to become a powerful nation that
commands the world's attention and it is more important than ever before to establish
regular dialogue. At the Sunnylands Summit in June 2013, President Xi Jinping and
President Barack Obama met for the first time. Sunnylands, a large estate in Rancho
Mirage, California, provided a relaxed setting for the two leaders to converse about
important topics like climate change, cyber security, and North Korea.
Despite positive overtures and discussions of a “new-type great power relationship,” a
phrase coined by the Chinese leadership, there are several huge factors still causing
conflict between the U.S. and China. For example, if the territorial disputes involving
Japan and China in the East and South China Seas were to erupt into conflict, the U.S.
would be forced to defend Japan, severely damaging relations with China. The fragile
China-Taiwan relationship is also cause for U.S.-China tension, as well as China’s human
rights violations.
Many look at U.S. relations with China as mutually beneficial, while others feel relations
are deteriorating with increased competition and interdependency. China is taking a more
active role in regional and international activities and this could harm or help U.S.-China
relations in unpredictable ways. Either way, the history of U.S.-China relations plays a
major role in influencing the status of relations today. With China's growing power and
influence in the international community, U.S.-China relations have become more
important than ever before in ensuring the prosperity and security of both nations.
2008
China becomes
largest holder of
U.S. debt
2011
U.S. pivots to
Asia
2013
Sunnylands
Summit
ADDITIONAL READING
Books
Following the Leader: Ruling China, David Lampton (University of California Press: 2014).
Interesting Times: China, America, and the Shifting Balance of Prestige, Chas W. Freeman, Jr.
(Just World Books: 2012).
On China, Henry Kissinger (Penguin Press: 2011).
The United States and China since World War II, Chi Wang (M.E. Sharpe: 2013).
Online Sources
China’s rise and Asian tensions send U.S. relations into downward spiral, The Washington Post
(2014).
Chronology of U.S.-China Relations, 1784-2000, U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian
Keep Hope Alive: How to Prevent U.S.-China Relations From Blowing Up, Foreign Affairs (2013).
Timeline: U.S. Relations with China, Council on Foreign Relations
U.S. Relations with China, Department of State (2013).
U.S.-China Relations: An Overview of Policy Issues, Congressional Research Service (2013).
The U.S.-China Policy Foundation is a sol (c) 3 non-profit organization founded in 1995 to encourage
greater understanding and policy dialogue between the United States and China.
Compiled and written by Erin Monroe
